Executive Summary: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes—2008

The fasting plasma glucose (FPG) text is the preferred test to diagnose diabetes in children and nonpregnant adults. (E)

Use of the A1C for the diagnosis of diabetes is not recommended at this time. (E)

Testing to detect pre-diabetes and type 2 diabetes in asymptomatic people should be considered in adults who are overweight or obese (BMI ≥25 kg/m²) and who have one more more additional risk factors for diabetes. In those without these risk factors, testing should begin at age 45. (B)

If tests are normal, repeat testing should be carried out at least at 3-year intervals. (E)

To test for pre-diabetes or diabetes, either an FPG test or 2-h oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT; 75-g glucose load), or both, is appropriate. (B)

An OGTT may be considered in patients with impaired fasting glucose (IFG) to better define the risk of diabetes. (E)

In those identified with pre-diabetes, identify and, if appropriate, treat other CVD risk factors. (B)

Test children who are overweight (BMI >85th percentile for age and sex, weight for height >85th percentile, or weight >120% of ideal for height) and have two of the following risk factors:

• Family history of type 2 diabetes in first- or second-degree relative

• Race/ethnicity (Native American, African American, Latino, Asian American, Pacific Islander)

• Signs of insulin resistance or conditions associated with insulin resistance (acanthosis nigricans, hypertension, dyslipidemia, or polycystic ovary syndrome [PCOS])

• Maternal history of diabetes or gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) (E)

Testing should begin at age 10 years or at onset of puberty, if puberty occurs at a younger age, and be repeated every 2 years. (E)

The FPG is the preferred test. (E)

Screen for GDM using risk factor analysis and, if appropriate, use of an OGTT. (C)

Women with GDM should be screened for diabetes 6–12 weeks postpartum and should be followed up with subsequent screening for the development of diabetes or pre-diabetes. (E)

Patients with impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) (A) or IFG (E) should be given counseling on weight loss of 5–10% of body weight, as well as on increasing physical activity to at least 150 min per week of moderate activity such as walking.

Follow-up counseling appears to be important for success. (B)

Based on potential cost savings of diabetes prevention, such counseling should be covered by third-party payors. (E)

In addition to lifestyle counseling, metformin may be considered in those who are at very high risk (combined IFG and IGT plus other risk factors) and who are obese and under 60 years of age. (E)

Monitoring for the development of diabetes in those with pre-diabetes should be performed every year. (E)

SMBG should be carried out three or more times daily for patients using multiple insulin injections or insulin pump therapy. (A)

For patients using less frequent insulin injections, noninsulin therapies, or medical nutrition therapy (MNT) alone, SMBG may be useful in achieving glycemic goals. (E)

To achieve postprandial glucose targets, postprandial SMBG may be appropriate. (E)

When prescribing SMBG, ensure that patients receive initial instruction in, and routine follow-up evaluation of, SMBG technique and their ability to use data to adjust therapy. (E)

Continuous glucose monitoring may be a supplemental tool to SMBG for selected patients with type 1 diabetes, especially those with hypoglycemia unawareness. (E)

Perform the A1C test at least two times a year in patients who are meeting treatment goals (and who have stable glycemic control). (E)

Perform the A1C test quarterly in patients whose therapy has changed or who are not meeting glycemic goals. (E)

Use of point-of-care testing for A1C allows for timely decisions on therapy changes, when needed. (E)

Lowering A1C to an average of ∼7% has clearly been shown to reduce microvascular and neuropathic complications of diabetes and, possibly, macrovascular disease. Therefore, the A1C goal for nonpregnant adults in general is <7%. (A)

Epidemiologic studies have suggested an incremental (albeit, in absolute terms, a small) benefit to lowering A1C from 7% into the normal range. Therefore, the A1C goal for selected individual patients is as close to normal (<6%) as possible without significant hypoglycemia. (B)

Less stringent A1C goals may be appropriate for patients with a history of severe hypoglycemia, patients with limited life expectancies, children, individuals with comorbid conditions, and those with longstanding diabetes and minimal or stable microvascular complications. (E)

Individuals who have pre-diabetes or diabetes should receive individualized MNT as needed to achieve treatment goals, preferably provided by a registered dietitian familiar with the components of diabetes MNT. (B)

MNT should be covered by insurance and other payors. (E)

In overweight and obese insulin-resistant individuals, modest weight loss has been shown to reduce insulin resistance. Thus, weight loss is recommended for all overweight or obese individuals who have or are at risk for diabetes. (A)

For weight loss, either low-carbohydrate or low-fat calorie-restricted diets may be effective in the short term (up to 1 year). (A)

For patients on low-carbohydrate diets, monitor lipid profiles, renal function and protein intake (in those with nephropathy), and adjust hypoglycemic therapy as needed. (E)

Physical activity and behavior modification are important components of weight loss programs and are most helpful in maintenance of weight loss. (B)

Among individuals at high risk for developing type 2 diabetes, structured programs that emphasize lifestyle changes that include moderate weight loss (7% body weight) and regular physical activity (150 min/week), with dietary strategies including reduced calories and reduced intake of dietary fat, can reduce the risk for developing diabetes and are therefore recommended. (A)

Individuals at high risk for type 2 diabetes should be encouraged to achieve the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) recommendation for dietary fiber (14 g fiber/1,000 kcal) and foods containing whole grains (one-half of grain intake). (B)

Saturated fat intake should be <7% of total calories. (A)

Intake of trans fat should be minimized. (E)

Monitoring carbohydrate, whether by carbohydrate counting, exchanges, or experience-based estimation, remains a key strategy in achieving glycemic control. (A)

For individuals with diabetes, the use of the glycemic index and glycemic load may provide a modest additional benefit for glycemic control over that observed when total carbohydrate is considered alone. (B)

Sugar alcohols and nonnutritive sweeteners are safe when consumed within the acceptable daily intake levels established by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). (A)

If adults with diabetes choose to use alcohol, daily intake should be limited to a moderate amount (one drink per day or less for adult women and two drinks per day or less for adult men). (E)

Routine supplementation with antioxidants, such as vitamins E and C and carotene, is not advised because of lack of evidence of efficacy and concern related to long-term safety. (A)

Benefit from chromium supplementation in people with diabetes or obesity has not been conclusively demonstrated and, therefore, cannot be recommended. (E)

People with diabetes should receive DSME according to national standards when their diabetes is diagnosed and as needed thereafter. (B)

Self-management behavior change is the key outcome of DSME and should be measured and monitored as part of care. (E)

DSME should address psychosocial issues, since emotional well-being is strongly associated with positive diabetes outcomes. (C)

DSME should be reimbursed by third-party payors. (E)

People with diabetes should be advised to perform at least 150 min/week of moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity (50–70% of maximum heart rate). (A)

In the absence of contraindications, people with type 2 diabetes should be encouraged to perform resistance training three times per week. (A)

Assessment of psychological and social situation should be included as an ongoing part of the medical management of diabetes. (E)

Psychosocial screening and follow-up should include, but is not limited to, attitudes about the illness, expectations for medical management and outcomes, affect/mood, general and diabetes-related quality of life, resources (financial, social, and emotional), and psychiatric history. (E)

Screen for psychosocial problems such as depression, anxiety, eating disorders, and cognitive impairment when adherence to the medical regimen is poor. (E)

Glucose (15–20 g) is the preferred treatment for the conscious individual with hypoglycemia, although any form of carbohydrate that contains glucose may be used. If SMBG 15 min after treatment shows continued hypoglycemia, the treatment should be repeated. Once SMBG glucose returns to normal, the individual should consume a meal or snack to prevent recurrence of hypoglycemia. (E)

Glucagon should be prescribed for all individuals at significant risk of severe hypoglycemia, and caregivers or family members of these individuals should be instructed in its administration. Glucagon administration is not limited to health care professionals. (E)

Individuals with hypoglycemia unawareness or one or more episodes of severe hypoglycemia should be advised to raise their glycemic targets to strictly avoid further hypoglycemia for at least several weeks in order to partially reverse hypoglycemia unawareness and reduce risk of future episodes. (B)

Annually provide an influenza vaccine to all diabetic patients ≥6 months of age. (C)

Provide at least one lifetime pneumococcal vaccine for adults with diabetes. A one-time revaccination is recommended for individuals ≥65 years of age previously immunized when they were <65 years of age if the vaccine was administered >5 years ago. Other indications for repeat vaccination include nephrotic syndrome, chronic renal disease, and other immunocompromised states, such as after transplantation. (C)

Blood pressure should be measured at every routine diabetes visit. Patients found to have systolic blood pressure ≥130 mmHg or diastolic blood pressure ≥80 mmHg should have blood pressure confirmed on a separate day. Repeat systolic blood pressure ≥130 mmHg or diastolic blood pressure ≥80 mmHg confirms a diagnosis of hypertension. (C)

Patients with diabetes should be treated to a systolic blood pressure <130 mmHg. (C)

Patients with diabetes should be treated to a diastolic blood pressure <80 mmHg. (B)

Patients with a systolic blood pressure of 130–139 mmHg or a diastolic blood pressure of 80–89 mmHg may be given lifestyle therapy alone for a maximum of 3 months, and then, if targets are not achieved, be treated with addition of pharmacological agents. (E)

Patients with more severe hypertension (systolic blood pressure ≥140 or diastolic blood pressure ≥90 mmHg) at diagnosis or follow-up should receive pharmacologic therapy in addition to lifestyle therapy. (A)

Pharmacologic therapy for patients with diabetes and hypertension should be with a regimen that includes either an ACE inhibitor or an angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB). If one class is not tolerated, the other should be substituted. If needed to achieve blood pressure targets, a thiazide diuretic should be added to those with an estimated glomerular filtration rate (GFR) ≥50 ml/min per 1.73 m² and a loop diuretic for those with an estimated GFR <50 ml/min per 1.73 m². (E)

Multiple drug therapy (two or more agents at maximal doses) is generally required to achieve blood pressure targets. (B)

If ACE inhibitors, ARBs, or diuretics are used, kidney function and serum potassium levels should be closely monitored. (E)

In pregnant patients with diabetes and chronic hypertension, blood pressure target goals of 110–129/65–79 mmHg are suggested in the interest of long-term maternal health and minimizing impaired fetal growth. ACE inhibitors and ARBs are contraindicated during pregnancy. (E)

In most adult patients, measure fasting lipid profile at least annually. In adults with low-risk lipid values (LDL cholesterol <100 mg/dl, HDL cholesterol >50 mg/dl, and triglycerides <150 mg/dl), lipid assessments may be repeated every 2 years. (E)

Lifestyle modification focusing on the reduction of saturated fat, trans fat, and cholesterol intake; weight loss (if indicated); and increased physical activity should be recommended to improve the lipid profile in patients with diabetes. (A)

Statin therapy should be added to lifestyle therapy, regardless of baseline lipid levels, for diabetic patients:

• with overt cardiovascular disease (CVD) (A)

• without CVD who are over the age of 40 and have one or more other CVD risk factors. (A)

For patients at lower risk than those mentioned above (e.g., without overt CVD and under the age of 40), statin therapy should be considered in addition to lifestyle therapy if LDL cholesterol remains >100 mg/dl or in those with multiple CVD risk factors. (E)

In individuals without overt CVD, the primary goal is an LDL cholesterol <100 mg/dl (2.6 mmol/l). (A)

In individuals with overt CVD, a lower LDL cholesterol goal of <70 mg/dl (1.8 mmol/l), using a high dose of a statin, is an option. (E)

If drug-treated patients do not reach the above targets on maximal tolerated statin therapy, a reduction in LDL cholesterol of ∼40% from baseline is an alternative therapeutic goal. (A)

Triglycerides levels <150 mg/dl (1.7 mmol/l) and HDL cholesterol levels >40 mg/dl (1.0 mmol/l) in men and >50 mg/dl (1.3 mmol/l) in women are desirable. However, LDL cholesterol–targeted statin therapy remains the preferred strategy. (C)

Combination therapy using statins and other lipid-lowering agents may be considered to achieve lipid targets but has not been evaluated in outcome studies for either CVD outcomes or safety. (E)

Statin therapy is contraindicated in pregnancy. (E)

Use aspirin therapy (75–162 mg/day) as a secondary prevention strategy in diabetic individuals with a history of CVD. (A)

Use aspirin therapy (75–162 mg/day) as a primary prevention strategy in those with type 1 or type 2 diabetes at increased cardiovascular risk, including those who are >40 years of age or who have additional risk factors (family history of CVD, hypertension, smoking, dyslipidemia, or albuminuria). (A)

Aspirin therapy is not recommended in people under 30 years of age, due to lack of evidence of benefit, and is contraindicated in patients under the age of 21 years because of the associated risk of Reye's syndrome. (E)

Combination therapy using other antiplatelet agents such as clopidrogel in addition to aspirin should be used in patients with severe and progressive CVD. (C)

Other antiplatelet agents may be a reasonable alternative for high-risk patients with aspirin allergy, with bleeding tendency, who are receiving anticoagulant therapy, with recent gastrointestinal bleeding, and with clinically active hepatic disease who are not candidates for aspirin therapy. (E)

Advise all patients not to smoke. (A)

Include smoking cessation counseling and other forms of treatment as a routine component of diabetes care. (B)

In asymptomatic patients, evaluate risk factors to stratify patients by 10-year risk, and treat risk factors accordingly. (B)

In patients with known CVD, ACE inhibitor, aspirin, and statin therapy (if not contraindicated) should be used to reduce the risk of cardiovascular events. (A)

In patients with a prior myocardial infarction, add β-blockers (if not contraindicated) to reduce mortality. (A)

In patients >40 years of age with another cardiovascular risk factor (hypertension, family history, dyslipidemia, microalbuminuria, cardiac autonomic neuropathy, or smoking), ACE inhibitor, aspirin, and statin therapy (if not contraindicated) should be used to reduce the risk of cardiovascular events. (B)

In patients with treated congestive heart failure (CHF), metformin and thiazolidinedione (TZD) use are contraindicated. (C)

To reduce the risk or slow the progression of nephropathy, optimize glucose control. (A)

To reduce the risk or slow the progression of nephropathy, optimize blood pressure control. (A)

Perform an annual test to assess urine albumin excretion in type 1 diabetic patients with diabetes duration of ≥5 years and in all type 2 diabetic patients, starting at diagnosis. (E)

Measure serum creatinine at least annually in all adults with diabetes regardless of the degree of urine albumin excretion. The serum creatinine should be used to estimate GFR and stage the level of chronic kidney disease (CKD), if present. (E)

In the treatment of the nonpregnant patient with micro- or macroalbuminuria, either ACE inhibitors or ARBs should be used. (A)

While there are no adequate head-to-head comparisons of ACE inhibitors and ARBs, there is clinical trial support for each of the following statements:

• In patients with type 1 diabetes, with hypertension and any degree of albuminuria, ACE inhibitors have been shown to delay the progression of nephropathy. (A)

• In patients with type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and microalbuminuria, both ACE inhibitors and ARBs have been shown to delay the progression to macroalbuminuria. (A)

• In patients with type 2 diabetes, hypertension, macroalbuminuria, and renal insufficiency (serum creatinine >1.5 mg/dl), ARBs have been shown to delay the progression of nephropathy. (A)

• If one class is not tolerated, the other should be substituted. (E)

Reduction of protein intake to 0.8–1.0 g · kg body wt⁻¹ · day⁻¹ in individuals with diabetes and the earlier stages of CKD and to 0.8 g · kg body wt⁻¹ · day⁻¹ in the later stages of CKD may improve measures of renal function (e.g., urine albumin excretion rate and GFR) and is recommended. (B)

When ACE inhibitors, ARBs, or diuretics are used, monitor serum creatinine and potassium levels for the development of acute kidney disease and hyperkalemia. (E)

Continued monitoring of urine albumin excretion to assess both the response to therapy and the progression of disease is recommended. (E)

Consider referral to a physician experienced in the care of kidney disease when there is uncertainty about the etiology of kidney disease (active urine sediment, absence of retinopathy, rapid decline in GFR), difficult management issues, or advanced kidney disease. (B)

To reduce the risk or slow the progression of retinopathy, optimize glycemic control. (A)

To reduce the risk or slow the progression of retinopathy, optimize blood pressure control. (A)

Adults and adolescents with type 1 diabetes should have an initial dilated and comprehensive eye examination by an ophthalmologist or optometrist within 5 years after the onset of diabetes. (B)

Patients with type 2 diabetes should have an initial dilated and comprehensive eye examination by an ophthalmologist or optometrist shortly after the diagnosis of diabetes. (B)

Subsequent examinations for type 1 and type 2 diabetic patients should be repeated annually by an ophthalmologist or optometrist. Less frequent exams (every 2–3 years) may be considered following one or more normal eye exams. Examinations will be required more frequently if retinopathy is progressing. (B)

Women with preexisting diabetes who are planning pregnancy or who have become pregnant should have a comprehensive eye examination and be counseled on the risk of development and/or progression of diabetic retinopathy. Eye examination should occur in the first trimester with close follow-up throughout pregnancy and for 1 year postpartum. (B)

Promptly refer patients with any level of macular edema, severe nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy (NPDR), or any proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR) to an ophthalmologist who is knowledgeable and experienced in the management and treatment of diabetic retinopathy. (A)

Laser photocoagulation therapy is indicated to reduce the risk of vision loss in patients with high-risk PDR, clinically significant macular edema, and in some cases of severe NPDR. (A)

The presence of retinopathy is not a contraindication to aspirin therapy for cardioprotection, as this therapy does not increase the risk of retinal hemorrhage. (A)

All patients should be screened for distal symmetric polyneuropathy (DPN) at diagnosis and at least annually thereafter, using simple clinical tests. (B)

Electrophysiological testing is rarely needed, except in situations where the clinical features are atypical. (E)

Educate all patients about self-care of the feet. For those with DPN, facilitate enhanced foot care education and refer for special footware. (B)

Screening for signs and symptoms of autonomic neuropathy should be instituted at diagnosis of type 2 diabetes and 5 years after the diagnosis of type 1 diabetes. Special testing is rarely needed and may not affect management or outcomes. (E)

Medications for the relief of specific symptoms related to DPN and autonomic neuropathy are recommended, as they improve the quality of life of the patient. (E)

For all patients with diabetes, perform an annual comprehensive foot examination to identify risk factors predictive of ulcers and amputations. The foot examination can be accomplished in a primary care setting and should include the use of a monofilament, tuning fork, palpation, and a visual examination. (B)

Provide general foot self-care education to all patients with diabetes. (B)

A multidisciplinary approach is recommended for individuals with foot ulcers and high-risk feet, especially those with a history of prior ulcer or amputation. (B)

Refer patients who smoke, have loss of protective sensation and structural abnormalities, or have history of prior lower-extremity complications to foot care specialists for ongoing preventive care and life-long surveillance. (C)

Initial screening for peripheral arterial disease (PAD) should include a history for claudication and an assessment of the pedal pulses. Consider obtaining an ankle-brachial index (ABI), as many patients with PAD are asymptomatic. (C)

Refer patients with significant claudication or a positive ABI for further vascular assessment and consider exercise, medications, and surgical options. (C)

Consider age when setting glycemic goals in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes, with less stringent goals for younger children. (E)

Annual screening for microalbuminuria, with a random spot urine sample for microalbumin-to-creatinine ratio, should be initiated once the child is 10 years of age and has had diabetes for 5 years. (E)

Confirmed, persistently elevated microalbumin levels on two additional urine specimens should be treated with an ACE inhibitor, titrated to normalization of microalbumin excretion if possible. (E)

Treatment of high-normal blood pressure (systolic or diastolic blood pressure consistently above the 90th percentile for age, sex, and height) should include dietary intervention and exercise, aimed at weight control and increased physical activity if appropriate. If target blood pressure is not reached with 3–6 months of lifestyle intervention, pharmacologic treatment should be initiated. (E)

Pharmacologic treatment of hypertension (systolic or diastolic blood pressure consistently above the 95th percentile for age, sex, and height or consistently >130/80 mmHg, if 95% exceeds that value) should be initiated as soon as the diagnosis is confirmed. (E)

ACE inhibitors should be considered for the initial treatment of hypertension. (E)

If there is a family history of hypercholesterolemia (total cholesterol >240 mg/dl) or a cardiovascular event before age 55 years, or if family history is unknown, then a fasting lipid profile should be performed on children >2 years of age soon after diagnosis (after glucose control has been established). If family history is not of concern, then the first lipid screening should be performed at puberty (≥10 years). All children diagnosed with diabetes at or after puberty should have a fasting lipid profile performed soon after diagnosis (after glucose control has been established). (E)

For both age groups, if lipids are abnormal, annual monitoring is recommended. If LDL cholesterol values are within the accepted risk levels (<100 mg/dl [2.6 mmol/l]), a lipid profile should be repeated every 5 years. (E)

Initial therapy should consist of optimization of glucose control and MNT using a Step 2 American Heart Association diet aimed at a decrease in the amount of saturated fat in the diet. (E)

After the age of 10 years, the addition of a statin is recommended in patients who, after MNT and lifestyle changes, have LDL cholesterol >160 mg/dl (4.1 mmol/l) or LDL cholesterol >130 mg/dl (3.4 mmol/l) and one or more CVD risk factors. (E)

The goal of therapy is an LDL cholesterol value <100 mg/dl (2.6 mmol/l). (E)

The first ophthalmologic examination should be obtained once the child is 10 years of age and has had diabetes for 3–5 years. (E)

After the initial examination, annual routine follow-up is generally recommended. Less frequent examinations may be acceptable on the advice of an eye care professional. (E)

Patients with type 1 diabetes who become symptomatic for celiac disease should be screened, using tissue transglutaminase (tTg) antibodies or anti-endomysial antibodies (anti-EMA), with documentation of normal serum immunoglobulin A (IgA) levels. (E)

Children with positive antibodies should be referred to a gastroenterologist for evaluation. (E)

Children with confirmed celiac disease should have consultation with a dietitian and be placed on a gluten-free diet. (E)

Patients with type 1 diabetes should be screened for thyroid peroxidase and thyroglobulin antibodies at diagnosis. (E)

Thryoid-stimulating hormone (TSH) concentrations should be measured after metabolic control has been established. If normal, they should be re-checked every 1–2 years, or if the patient develops symptoms of thyroid dysfunction, thyromegaly, or an abnormal growth rate. Free T4 should be measured if TSH is abnormal. (E)

A1C levels should be as close to normal as possible (<7%) in an individual patient before conception is attempted. (B)

All women with diabetes and child-bearing potential should be educated about the need for good glucose control before pregnancy and should participate in family planning. (E)

Women with diabetes who are contemplating pregnancy should be evaluated and, if indicated, treated for diabetic retinopathy, nephropathy, neuropathy, and CVD. (E)

Medications used by such women should be evaluated before conception, since drugs commonly used to treat diabetes and its complications may be contraindicated or not recommended in pregnancy, including statins, ACE inhibitors, ARBs, and most noninsulin therapies. (E)

Older adults who are functional, cognitively intact, and have significant life expectancy should receive diabetes treatment using goals developed for younger adults. (E)

Glycemic goals for older adults not meeting the above criteria may be relaxed using individual criteria, but hyperglycemia leading to symptoms or risk of acute hyperglycemic complications should be avoided in all patients. (E)

Other cardiovascular risk factors should be treated in older adults with consideration of the time frame of benefit and the individual patient. Treatment of hypertension is indicated in virtually all older adults, and lipid and aspirin therapy may benefit those with life expectancy at least equal to the time frame of primary or secondary prevention trials. (E)

Screening for diabetic complications should be individualized in older adults, but particular attention should be paid to complications that would lead to functional impairment. (E)

All patients with diabetes admitted to the hospital should have their diabetes clearly identified in the medical record. (E)

All patients with diabetes should have an order for blood glucose monitoring, with results available to all members of the health care team. (E)

Critically ill patients: blood glucose levels should be kept as close to 110 mg/dl (6.1 mmol/l) as possible and generally <140 mg/dl (7.8 mmol/l). (A) These patients require an intravenous insulin protocol that has demonstrated efficacy and safety in achieving the desired glucose range without increasing risk for severe hypoglycemia. (E)

Non–critically ill patients: there is no clear evidence for specific blood glucose goals. Because cohort data suggest that outcomes are better in hospitalized patients with fasting glucose <126 mg/dl and all random glucoses <180–200 mg/dl, these goals are reasonable if they can be safely achieved. Insulin is the preferred drug to treat hyperglycemia in most cases. (E)

Due to concerns regarding the risk of hypoglycemia, some institutions may consider these blood glucose levels to be overly aggressive for initial targets. Through quality improvement, glycemic goals should systematically be reduced to the recommended levels. (E)

Scheduled prandial insulin doses should be appropriately timed in relation to meals and should be adjusted according to point-of-care glucose levels. The traditional sliding-scale insulin regimens are ineffective as monotherapy and are generally not recommended. (C)

Using correction dose or “supplemental” insulin to correct premeal hyperglycemia in addition to scheduled prandial and basal insulin is recommended. (E)

Glucose monitoring with orders for correction insulin should be initiated in any patient not known to be diabetic who receives therapy associated with high risk for hyperglycemia, including high-dose glucocorticoids therapy, initiation of enteral or parenteral nutrition, or other medications such as octreotide or immunosuppressive medications. (B) If hyperglycemia is documented and persistent, initiation of basal/bolus insulin therapy may be necessary. Such patients should be treated to the same glycemic goals as patients with known diabetes. (E)

A plan for treating hypoglycemia should be established for each patient. Episodes of hypoglycemia in the hospital should be tracked. (E)

All patients with diabetes admitted to the hospital should have an A1C obtained if the result of testing in the previous 2–3 months is not available. (E)

A diabetes education plan including “survival skills education” and follow-up should be developed for each patient. (E)

Patients with hyperglycemia in the hospital who do not have a diagnosis of diabetes should have appropriate plans for follow-up testing and care documented at discharge. (E)

An individualized diabetes medical management plan (DMMP) should be developed by the parent/guardian and the student's diabetes health care team. (E)

An adequate number of school personnel should be trained in the necessary diabetes procedures (including monitoring of blood glucose levels and the administration of insulin and glucagon) and in the appropriate response to high and low blood glucose levels. These school personnel need not be health care professionals. (E)

As specified in the DMMP and as developmentally appropriate, the student with diabetes should have immediate access to diabetes supplies at all times, should be permitted to monitor his or her blood glucose level, and should be able to take appropriate action to treat hypoglycemia in the classroom or anywhere the student may be in conjunction with a school activity. (E)

Each camper should have a standardized medical form completed by his/her family and the physician managing the diabetes. (E)

Camp medical staff should be led by a physician with expertise in managing type 1 and type 2 diabetes, and should include nurses (including diabetes educators and diabetes clinical nurse specialists) and registered dietitians with expertise in diabetes. (E)

All camp staff, including physicians, nurses, dietitians and volunteers, should undergo background testing to ensure appropriateness in working with children. (E)

Correctional staff should be trained in the recognition, treatment, and appropriate referral for hypo- and hyperglycemia, including serious metabolic decompensation. (E)

Patients with a diagnosis of diabetes should have a complete medical history and physical examination by a licensed health care provider with prescriptive authority in a timely manner upon entry. Insulin-treated patients should have a capillary blood glucose (CBG) determination within 1–2 h of arrival. Staff should identify patients with type 1 diabetes who are at high risk for diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) with omission of insulin. (E)

Medications and MNT should be continued without interruption upon entry into the correctional environment. (E)

In the correctional setting, policies and procedures should enable CBG monitoring to occur at the frequency necessitated by the patient's glycemic control and diabetes regimen, and should require staff to notify a physician of all CBG results outside of a specified range, as determined by the treating physician. (E)

For all inter-institutional transfers, a medical transfer summary should be transferred with the patient, and diabetes supplies and medication should accompany the patient. (E)

Correctional staff should begin discharge planning with adequate lead time to ensure continuity of care and facilitate entry into community diabetes care. (E)

People with diabetes should maintain a disaster kit that includes items important to their diabetes self-management and continuing medical care. (E)

The kit should be reviewed and replenished at least twice yearly. (E)

People with diabetes should be individually considered for employment based on the requirements of the specific job and the individual's medical condition, treatment regimen, and medical history. (E)

Patients and practitioners should have access to all classes of antidiabetic medications, equipment, and supplies without undue controls. (E)

MNT and DSME should be covered by insurance and other payors. (E)