Comparative prospective studies of depression and incident type 2 diabetes
| Author . | Follow-up . | Incident n/Total n . | Sample source . | Sample composition* . | Depression assessment . | Diabetes assessment . | Selected estimate (95% CI)† . | Statistical adjustment for selected estimate† . |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Eaton et al. (17) | 13 years | 89/1,920 | Population based | Age: ≥18 years | Diagnostic Interview Schedule | Self-report | 2.23 (0.90–5.55) | Age, sex, race, and BMI |
| 63% F | ||||||||
| 34% B | ||||||||
| Kawakami et al. (26) | 8 years | 41/2,380 | Occupation based | Age: ≥18 years | Zung Self-Report Depression Scale | OGTT | 2.32 (1.06–5.08) | Age |
| Only men | ||||||||
| 100% A | ||||||||
| Stellato et al. (21) | 9 years | 54/1,156 | Population based | Age: 40–70 years | CES-D | Self-report | 3.09 (1.34–7.12) | Free testosterone, SHBG, hypertension, heart disease, and BMI |
| Only men | ||||||||
| 97% W | ||||||||
| Carnethon et al. (18) | 15.6 years | 369/6,190 | Population based | Age: 25–74 years | General Well-Being Scale | Self-report, MRD, death certificate | 2.52 (1.73–3.67) | Age, race, and sex |
| 59% F | ||||||||
| 15% B | ||||||||
| Arroyo et al. (14) | 4 years | 973/72,178 | Occupation based | Age: 45–72 years | Short-Form 36 | Self-report | 1.55 (1.27–1.90) | Age |
| Only women | ||||||||
| ∼100% W | ||||||||
| Everson-Rose et al. (19) | 3 years | 96/2,662 | Population based | Age: 42–52 years | CES-D | Self-report, FPG | 1.66 (1.05–2.61) | Age, study site, race, education, and medication use |
| Only women | ||||||||
| 47% W | ||||||||
| Golden et al. (22) | 6 years | 721/11,615 | Population based | Age: 48–67 years | Vital Exhaustion Questionnaire | Self-report, FSG | 1.63 (1.31–2.02) | Age, sex, race, study site, and education |
| 56% F | ||||||||
| 22% B | ||||||||
| Kumari et al. (27) | 10.5 years | 361/10,308 | Occupation based | Age: 35–55 years | General Health Questionnaire | Self-report, OGTT | 1.14 (0.83–1.57) | Age, sex, length of follow-up, ethnicity, electrocardiogram abnormalities, and employment grade |
| 44% F | ||||||||
| ∼95% W | ||||||||
| Palinkas et al. (28) | 8 years | 79/971 | Population based | Age: ≥50 years | BDI | OGTT, FPG, non-FPG | 2.50 (1.29–4.87) | Age, sex, physical activity, and BMI |
| 57% F | ||||||||
| 100% W | ||||||||
| van den Akker et al. (20) | 15 years | 3,245/68,004 | Clinic network | Age: ≥20 years | International Classification of Health Problems in Primary Care (ICHPPC-2) | MRD | 1.04 (0.84–1.28) | Age, sex, BMI, socioeconomic status, and interaction of depression*age*sex |
| 58% F | ||||||||
| Mallon et al. (23) | 12 years | 88/2,663 | Population based | Age: 45–65 years | Self-reported dysphoria | Self-report | 1.47 (0.48–4.47) | Age |
| 53% F | ||||||||
| Carnethon et al. (24) | 8 years | 147/4,681 | Population based | Age: ≥65 years | CES-D | Diabetes medication use or FPG | 1.63 (1.12–2.36) | Age, race, and sex |
| 59% F | ||||||||
| 13% B | ||||||||
| Engum (25) | 10 years | 653/37,291 | Population based | Age: ≥30 years | Anxiety and Depression Index | Self-report, confirmed with FPG | 1.51 (1.27–1.80) | Age, sex, education, and marital status |
| 55% F |
| Author . | Follow-up . | Incident n/Total n . | Sample source . | Sample composition* . | Depression assessment . | Diabetes assessment . | Selected estimate (95% CI)† . | Statistical adjustment for selected estimate† . |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Eaton et al. (17) | 13 years | 89/1,920 | Population based | Age: ≥18 years | Diagnostic Interview Schedule | Self-report | 2.23 (0.90–5.55) | Age, sex, race, and BMI |
| 63% F | ||||||||
| 34% B | ||||||||
| Kawakami et al. (26) | 8 years | 41/2,380 | Occupation based | Age: ≥18 years | Zung Self-Report Depression Scale | OGTT | 2.32 (1.06–5.08) | Age |
| Only men | ||||||||
| 100% A | ||||||||
| Stellato et al. (21) | 9 years | 54/1,156 | Population based | Age: 40–70 years | CES-D | Self-report | 3.09 (1.34–7.12) | Free testosterone, SHBG, hypertension, heart disease, and BMI |
| Only men | ||||||||
| 97% W | ||||||||
| Carnethon et al. (18) | 15.6 years | 369/6,190 | Population based | Age: 25–74 years | General Well-Being Scale | Self-report, MRD, death certificate | 2.52 (1.73–3.67) | Age, race, and sex |
| 59% F | ||||||||
| 15% B | ||||||||
| Arroyo et al. (14) | 4 years | 973/72,178 | Occupation based | Age: 45–72 years | Short-Form 36 | Self-report | 1.55 (1.27–1.90) | Age |
| Only women | ||||||||
| ∼100% W | ||||||||
| Everson-Rose et al. (19) | 3 years | 96/2,662 | Population based | Age: 42–52 years | CES-D | Self-report, FPG | 1.66 (1.05–2.61) | Age, study site, race, education, and medication use |
| Only women | ||||||||
| 47% W | ||||||||
| Golden et al. (22) | 6 years | 721/11,615 | Population based | Age: 48–67 years | Vital Exhaustion Questionnaire | Self-report, FSG | 1.63 (1.31–2.02) | Age, sex, race, study site, and education |
| 56% F | ||||||||
| 22% B | ||||||||
| Kumari et al. (27) | 10.5 years | 361/10,308 | Occupation based | Age: 35–55 years | General Health Questionnaire | Self-report, OGTT | 1.14 (0.83–1.57) | Age, sex, length of follow-up, ethnicity, electrocardiogram abnormalities, and employment grade |
| 44% F | ||||||||
| ∼95% W | ||||||||
| Palinkas et al. (28) | 8 years | 79/971 | Population based | Age: ≥50 years | BDI | OGTT, FPG, non-FPG | 2.50 (1.29–4.87) | Age, sex, physical activity, and BMI |
| 57% F | ||||||||
| 100% W | ||||||||
| van den Akker et al. (20) | 15 years | 3,245/68,004 | Clinic network | Age: ≥20 years | International Classification of Health Problems in Primary Care (ICHPPC-2) | MRD | 1.04 (0.84–1.28) | Age, sex, BMI, socioeconomic status, and interaction of depression*age*sex |
| 58% F | ||||||||
| Mallon et al. (23) | 12 years | 88/2,663 | Population based | Age: 45–65 years | Self-reported dysphoria | Self-report | 1.47 (0.48–4.47) | Age |
| 53% F | ||||||||
| Carnethon et al. (24) | 8 years | 147/4,681 | Population based | Age: ≥65 years | CES-D | Diabetes medication use or FPG | 1.63 (1.12–2.36) | Age, race, and sex |
| 59% F | ||||||||
| 13% B | ||||||||
| Engum (25) | 10 years | 653/37,291 | Population based | Age: ≥30 years | Anxiety and Depression Index | Self-report, confirmed with FPG | 1.51 (1.27–1.80) | Age, sex, education, and marital status |
| 55% F |
Racial/ethnic composition not provided for some studies: A, Asian; B, African American; F, female; W, non-Hispanic white. BDI, Beck Depression Inventory; CES-D, Centers for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale; FPG, fasting plasma glucose; MRD, medical record diagnosis; OGTT, 75-g oral glucose tolerance test; SHBG, sex hormone–binding globulin.
Selected estimate refers to estimate that is most closely adjusted for only demographic characteristics (age, sex, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic indicators, and marital status) and is the estimate used in the pooled analyses and are depicted in Figure 1. Estimates for Mallon et al. (23) and Kumari et al. (24) derived from pooled random-effects models across sex.