Patient characteristics
| . | Full unweighted cohort . | Weighted cohort . | . | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| . | Metformin . | Sulfonylureas . | Metformin . | Sulfonylureas . | SMD† . |
| Patients, n | 67,381 | 28,801 | 24,542 | 24,662 | |
| Age (years)* | 67 (62, 74) | 71 (63, 79) | 70 (63, 78) | 70 (63, 78) | 0.001 |
| Male, n (%) | 64,571 (95.8) | 28,288 (98.2) | 24,056 (98.0) | 24,172 (98.0) | <0.001 |
| Race, n (%) | |||||
| White | 56,104 (83.3) | 23,394 (81.2) | 20,082 (81.8) | 20,184.6 (81.9) | 0.001 |
| Black | 9,807 (14.6) | 4,883 (17.0) | 4,004 (16.3) | 4,014.1 (16.3) | |
| Other | 1,470 (2.2) | 524 (1.8) | 456 (1.9) | 460 (1.9) | |
| Medication start to kidney threshold (months)* | 16.2 (6.5, 35.0) | 13.6 (5.9, 29.0) | 14 (5.8, 30.2) | 14.0 (6.0, 30.3) | 0.013 |
| Year of reaching kidney threshold, n (%) | 0.027 | ||||
| 2002–2003 | 3,158 (4.7) | 4,880 (16.9) | 2,913 (11.8) | 2,907 (11.8) | |
| 2004–2005 | 5,770 (8.6) | 5,706 (19.8) | 4,463 (18.2) | 4,423 (17.9) | |
| 2006–2007 | 9,041 (13.4) | 6,068 (21.1) | 5,184 (21.2) | 5,413 (22.0) | |
| 2008–2009 | 9,905 (14.7) | 4,026 (14.0) | 3,856 (15.7) | 3,870 (15.7) | |
| 2010–2011 | 12,146 (18.0) | 3,318 (11.5) | 3,340 (13.6) | 3,267 (13.2) | |
| 2012–2013 | 12,773 (19.0) | 2,600 (9.0) | 2,629 (10.7) | 2,580 (10.4) | |
| 2014–2015 | 14,588 (21.6) | 2,203 (7.7) | 2,157 (8.8) | 2,198 (8.9) | |
| Laboratory variables | |||||
| HbA1c (%)* | 6.5 (6.1, 7.0) | 6.6 (6.1, 7.3) | 6.5 (6.1, 7.1) | 6.6 (6.1, 7.2) | 0.005 |
| HbA1c (mmol/mol)* | 48 (43, 53) | 49 (43, 56) | 48 (43, 54) | 49 (43, 55) | |
| Missing HbA1c measure | 2,758 (4.1) | 1,127 (3.9) | 1,003.3 (4.1) | 987.5 (4.0) | 0.004 |
| eGFR before threshold (mL/min/1.73 m2)* | 70.4 (65.1, 78.6) | 69.2 (64.5, 76.4) | 69.6 (64.7, 77.0) | 69.6 (64.7, 77.0) | 0.001 |
| eGFR at kidney threshold (mL/min/1.73 m2)* | 55.9 (51.7, 58.2) | 55.8 (51.5, 58.2) | 55.8 (51.7, 58.2) | 55.8 (51.6, 58.2) | 0.002 |
| Hemoglobin (g/dL)* | 14.0 (12.9, 15.0) | 14.1 (13.0, 15.2) | 14.1 (13.0, 15.1) | 14.1 (13.0, 15.2) | 0.003 |
| Missing hemoglobin measure, n (%) | 3,625 (5.4) | 1,709 (5.9) | 1,510.8 (6.2) | 1,505.3 (6.1) | 0.002 |
| LDL (mg/dL)* | 85 (67, 106) | 89 (72, 111) | 88.0 (70, 110) | 88 (71, 110) | 0.001 |
| Missing LDL measure, n (%) | 1,312 (1.9) | 1,133 (3.9) | 790.6 (3.2) | 792.4 (3.2) | <0.001 |
| MACR stage, n (%) | |||||
| A1 (<30 mg/g, normal to mild increased albuminuria) | 29,514 (43.8) | 10,577 (36.7) | 9,426.4 (38.4) | 9,485.9 (38.5) | 0.003 |
| A2 (30–300 mg/g, moderate increased albuminuria) | 7,345 (10.9) | 3,055 (10.6) | 2,659.5 (10.8) | 2,659.3 (10.8) | |
| A3 and positive unable to quantify (>300 mg/g, severely increased albuminuria) | 1,801 (2.7) | 925 (3.2) | 764.0 (3.1) | 757.7 (3.1) | |
| Missing MACR measure, n (%) | 28,721 (42.6) | 14,244 (49.5) | 11,691.8 (47.6) | 11,756.2 (47.7) | |
| Proteinuria by urinalysis, negative, n (%) | 32,812 (48.7) | 13,441 (46.7) | 11,589 (47.2) | 11,644 (47.2) | 0.002 |
| Urine protein trace or 1+ | 9,971 (14.8) | 4,137 (14.4) | 3,536 (14.4) | 3,565 (14.5) | |
| Proteinuria present at 2+ | 2,150 (3.2) | 976 (3.4) | 794 (3.2) | 800 (3.2) | |
| Proteinuria present at 3+ or 4+ | 622 (0.9) | 479 (1.7) | 343 (1.4) | 344 (1.4) | |
| Missing urine protein measure, n (%) | 21,826 (32.4) | 9,768 (33.9) | 8,280 (33.7) | 8,306 (33.7) | |
| Clinical variables | |||||
| Systolic blood pressure (mmHg)* | 129 (118, 140) | 131 (120, 143) | 131 (119, 142) | 131 (119, 142) | 0.002 |
| Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg)* | 73 (65, 80) | 71 (64, 80) | 72 (64, 80) | 72 (64, 80) | <0.001 |
| BMI (kg/m2)* | 31.1 (27.7, 35.2) | 30.1 (26.9, 34.1) | 30.4 (27.1, 34.4) | 30.3 (27.1, 34.4) | 0.004 |
| Missing BMI measure, n (%) | 11,471 (17.0) | 5,707 (19.8) | 4,591 (18.7) | 4,617 (18.7) | <0.001 |
| Baseline comorbidities, n (%)‡ | |||||
| Malignancy | 7,118 (10.6) | 3,486 (12.1) | 2,867 (11.7) | 2,884 (11.7) | <0.001 |
| Liver disease | 1,087 (1.6) | 786 (2.7) | 571 (2.3) | 568 (2.3) | 0.001 |
| HIV | 231 (0.3) | 112 (0.4) | 92 (0.4) | 94 (0.4) | 0.001 |
| Congestive heart failure | 5,419 (8.0) | 4,154 (14.4) | 2,939 (12.0) | 2,960 (12.0) | 0.001 |
| Cardiovascular disease | 17,525 (26.0) | 9,726 (33.8) | 7,729 (31.5) | 7,798 (31.6) | 0.003 |
| Stroke | 1,877 (2.8) | 1,017 (3.5) | 822 (3.4) | 819 (3.3) | 0.002 |
| Transient ischemic attack | 704 (1.0) | 406 (1.4) | 318 (1.3) | 328 (1.3) | 0.003 |
| Serious mental illness | 16,446 (24.4) | 5,755 (20.0) | 4,988 (20.3) | 5,063 (20.5) | 0.005 |
| Smoking | 8,654 (12.8) | 3,515 (12.2) | 3,032 (12.4) | 3,054 (12.4) | 0.001 |
| Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease | 10,161 (15.1) | 5,203 (18.1) | 4,146.7 (16.9) | 4,181.6 (17.0) | 0.002 |
| History of respiratory failure | 1,884 (2.8) | 927 (3.2) | 763.6 (3.1) | 762.0 (3.1) | 0.001 |
| History of sepsis | 893 (1.3) | 482 (1.7) | 370 (1.5) | 378 (1.5) | 0.002 |
| History of pneumonia | 2,111 (3.1) | 1,389 (4.8) | 1,027 (4.2) | 1,045 (4.2) | 0.003 |
| Arrhythmia | 9,383 (13.9) | 5,408 (18.8) | 4,244 (17.3) | 4,272 (17.3) | 0.001 |
| Cardiac valve disease | 1,869 (2.8) | 1,181 (4.1) | 888 (3.6) | 895 (3.6) | 0.001 |
| Parkinson disease | 495 (0.7) | 309 (1.1) | 227 (0.9) | 230 (0.9) | 0.001 |
| Urinary tract infection | 2,197 (3.3) | 1,346 (4.7) | 1,011 (4.1) | 1,021 (4.1) | 0.001 |
| Osteomyelitis | 299 (0.4) | 192 (0.7) | 151 (0.6) | 149 (0.6) | 0.002 |
| Osteoporosis | 468 (0.7) | 238 (0.8) | 195 (0.8) | 200 (0.8) | 0.002 |
| Falls | 143 (0.2) | 73 (0.3) | 55 (0.2) | 56 (0.2) | 0.001 |
| Fractures | 1,236 (1.8) | 668 (2.3) | 538 (2.2) | 538 (2.2) | 0.001 |
| Amputation | 224 (0.3) | 168 (0.6) | 115 (0.5) | 118 (0.5) | 0.002 |
| Retinopathy | 502 (0.7) | 394 (1.4) | 286 (1.2) | 287 (1.2) | <0.001 |
| Use of medications, n (%) | |||||
| ACE inhibitors | 42,993 (63.8) | 18,703 (64.9) | 15,881 (64.7) | 16,002 (64.9) | 0.004 |
| Angiotensin II receptor blockers | 8,643 (12.8) | 3,095 (10.7) | 2,800 (11.4) | 2,792 (11.3) | 0.003 |
| β-Blockers | 33,084 (49.1) | 14,674 (50.9) | 12,414 (50.6) | 12,485 (50.6) | 0.001 |
| Calcium channel blockers | 19,585 (29.1) | 8,611 (29.9) | 7,333 (29.9) | 7,367 (29.9) | <0.001 |
| Thiazide and potassium-sparing diuretics | 29,836 (44.3) | 11,508 (40.0) | 10,051 (41.0) | 10,143 (41.1) | 0.004 |
| Loop diuretics | 10,190 (15.1) | 6,544 (22.7) | 4,900 (20.0) | 4,925 (20.0) | <0.001 |
| Other antihypertensive medications | 18,349 (27.2) | 7,783 (27.0) | 6,676 (27.2) | 6,685 (27.1) | 0.002 |
| Statin lipid-lowering drugs | 49,632 (73.7) | 18,566 (64.5) | 16,456 (67.1) | 16,605 (67.3) | 0.006 |
| Nonstatin lipid-lowering agents | 13,087 (19.4) | 4,639 (16.1) | 4,222 (17.2) | 4,250 (17.2) | 0.001 |
| Antiarrhythmics digoxin and inotropes | 4,346 (6.4) | 3,114 (10.8) | 2,239 (9.1) | 2,249 (9.1) | <0.001 |
| Anticoagulants, platelet inhibitors | 5,961 (8.8) | 3,068 (10.7) | 2,465 (10.0) | 2,471 (10.0) | 0.001 |
| Nitrates | 7,752 (11.5) | 4,671 (16.2) | 3,595 (14.6) | 3,631 (14.7) | 0.002 |
| Aspirin | 14,232 (21.1) | 6,476 (22.5) | 5,305 (21.6) | 5,351 (21.7) | 0.002 |
| Platelet inhibitors not aspirin | 6,201 (9.2) | 3,067 (10.6) | 2,551 (10.4) | 2,569 (10.4) | 0.001 |
| Antipsychotics | 5,344 (7.9) | 1,960 (6.8) | 1,714 (7.0) | 1,735 (7.0) | 0.002 |
| Oral glucocorticoids | 4,988 (7.4) | 2,106 (7.3) | 1,771 (7.2) | 1,787 (7.2) | 0.001 |
| Indicators of health care utilization, n (%) | |||||
| Hospitalized within year (VHA) | 8,809 (13.1) | 4,394 (15.3) | 3,475 (14.2) | 3,528 (14.3) | 0.004 |
| Hospitalized within year (Medicare/Medicaid) | 5,563 (8.3) | 3,560 (12.4) | 2,745 (11.2) | 2,762 (11.2) | <0.001 |
| Hospitalized in 30 days (VHA) | 2,385 (3.5) | 1,144 (4.0) | 900 (3.7) | 919 (3.7) | 0.003 |
| Hospitalized in 30 days (Medicare/Medicaid) | 965 (1.4) | 569 (2.0) | 433 (1.8) | 443 (1.8) | 0.003 |
| Nursing home encounter in last year | 187 (0.3) | 131 (0.5) | 89 (0.4) | 95 (0.4) | 0.003 |
| Number medications* | 7 (5, 11) | 7 (4, 10) | 7 (4, 10) | 7 (4, 10) | 0.003 |
| Outpatient visits in past year* | 6 (3, 11) | 7 (4, 12) | 6 (4, 11) | 6 (4, 11) | 0.001 |
| Medicare insurance use in last year | 21,311 (31.6) | 10,486 (36.4) | 8,768 (35.7) | 8,772 (35.6) | 0.003 |
| Medicaid insurance use in last year | 659 (1.0) | 428 (1.5) | 319 (1.3) | 327 (1.3) | 0.002 |
| Medicare Advantage use | 10,208 (15.1) | 4,319 (15.0) | 3,755 (15.3) | 3,768 (15.3) | 0.001 |
| . | Full unweighted cohort . | Weighted cohort . | . | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| . | Metformin . | Sulfonylureas . | Metformin . | Sulfonylureas . | SMD† . |
| Patients, n | 67,381 | 28,801 | 24,542 | 24,662 | |
| Age (years)* | 67 (62, 74) | 71 (63, 79) | 70 (63, 78) | 70 (63, 78) | 0.001 |
| Male, n (%) | 64,571 (95.8) | 28,288 (98.2) | 24,056 (98.0) | 24,172 (98.0) | <0.001 |
| Race, n (%) | |||||
| White | 56,104 (83.3) | 23,394 (81.2) | 20,082 (81.8) | 20,184.6 (81.9) | 0.001 |
| Black | 9,807 (14.6) | 4,883 (17.0) | 4,004 (16.3) | 4,014.1 (16.3) | |
| Other | 1,470 (2.2) | 524 (1.8) | 456 (1.9) | 460 (1.9) | |
| Medication start to kidney threshold (months)* | 16.2 (6.5, 35.0) | 13.6 (5.9, 29.0) | 14 (5.8, 30.2) | 14.0 (6.0, 30.3) | 0.013 |
| Year of reaching kidney threshold, n (%) | 0.027 | ||||
| 2002–2003 | 3,158 (4.7) | 4,880 (16.9) | 2,913 (11.8) | 2,907 (11.8) | |
| 2004–2005 | 5,770 (8.6) | 5,706 (19.8) | 4,463 (18.2) | 4,423 (17.9) | |
| 2006–2007 | 9,041 (13.4) | 6,068 (21.1) | 5,184 (21.2) | 5,413 (22.0) | |
| 2008–2009 | 9,905 (14.7) | 4,026 (14.0) | 3,856 (15.7) | 3,870 (15.7) | |
| 2010–2011 | 12,146 (18.0) | 3,318 (11.5) | 3,340 (13.6) | 3,267 (13.2) | |
| 2012–2013 | 12,773 (19.0) | 2,600 (9.0) | 2,629 (10.7) | 2,580 (10.4) | |
| 2014–2015 | 14,588 (21.6) | 2,203 (7.7) | 2,157 (8.8) | 2,198 (8.9) | |
| Laboratory variables | |||||
| HbA1c (%)* | 6.5 (6.1, 7.0) | 6.6 (6.1, 7.3) | 6.5 (6.1, 7.1) | 6.6 (6.1, 7.2) | 0.005 |
| HbA1c (mmol/mol)* | 48 (43, 53) | 49 (43, 56) | 48 (43, 54) | 49 (43, 55) | |
| Missing HbA1c measure | 2,758 (4.1) | 1,127 (3.9) | 1,003.3 (4.1) | 987.5 (4.0) | 0.004 |
| eGFR before threshold (mL/min/1.73 m2)* | 70.4 (65.1, 78.6) | 69.2 (64.5, 76.4) | 69.6 (64.7, 77.0) | 69.6 (64.7, 77.0) | 0.001 |
| eGFR at kidney threshold (mL/min/1.73 m2)* | 55.9 (51.7, 58.2) | 55.8 (51.5, 58.2) | 55.8 (51.7, 58.2) | 55.8 (51.6, 58.2) | 0.002 |
| Hemoglobin (g/dL)* | 14.0 (12.9, 15.0) | 14.1 (13.0, 15.2) | 14.1 (13.0, 15.1) | 14.1 (13.0, 15.2) | 0.003 |
| Missing hemoglobin measure, n (%) | 3,625 (5.4) | 1,709 (5.9) | 1,510.8 (6.2) | 1,505.3 (6.1) | 0.002 |
| LDL (mg/dL)* | 85 (67, 106) | 89 (72, 111) | 88.0 (70, 110) | 88 (71, 110) | 0.001 |
| Missing LDL measure, n (%) | 1,312 (1.9) | 1,133 (3.9) | 790.6 (3.2) | 792.4 (3.2) | <0.001 |
| MACR stage, n (%) | |||||
| A1 (<30 mg/g, normal to mild increased albuminuria) | 29,514 (43.8) | 10,577 (36.7) | 9,426.4 (38.4) | 9,485.9 (38.5) | 0.003 |
| A2 (30–300 mg/g, moderate increased albuminuria) | 7,345 (10.9) | 3,055 (10.6) | 2,659.5 (10.8) | 2,659.3 (10.8) | |
| A3 and positive unable to quantify (>300 mg/g, severely increased albuminuria) | 1,801 (2.7) | 925 (3.2) | 764.0 (3.1) | 757.7 (3.1) | |
| Missing MACR measure, n (%) | 28,721 (42.6) | 14,244 (49.5) | 11,691.8 (47.6) | 11,756.2 (47.7) | |
| Proteinuria by urinalysis, negative, n (%) | 32,812 (48.7) | 13,441 (46.7) | 11,589 (47.2) | 11,644 (47.2) | 0.002 |
| Urine protein trace or 1+ | 9,971 (14.8) | 4,137 (14.4) | 3,536 (14.4) | 3,565 (14.5) | |
| Proteinuria present at 2+ | 2,150 (3.2) | 976 (3.4) | 794 (3.2) | 800 (3.2) | |
| Proteinuria present at 3+ or 4+ | 622 (0.9) | 479 (1.7) | 343 (1.4) | 344 (1.4) | |
| Missing urine protein measure, n (%) | 21,826 (32.4) | 9,768 (33.9) | 8,280 (33.7) | 8,306 (33.7) | |
| Clinical variables | |||||
| Systolic blood pressure (mmHg)* | 129 (118, 140) | 131 (120, 143) | 131 (119, 142) | 131 (119, 142) | 0.002 |
| Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg)* | 73 (65, 80) | 71 (64, 80) | 72 (64, 80) | 72 (64, 80) | <0.001 |
| BMI (kg/m2)* | 31.1 (27.7, 35.2) | 30.1 (26.9, 34.1) | 30.4 (27.1, 34.4) | 30.3 (27.1, 34.4) | 0.004 |
| Missing BMI measure, n (%) | 11,471 (17.0) | 5,707 (19.8) | 4,591 (18.7) | 4,617 (18.7) | <0.001 |
| Baseline comorbidities, n (%)‡ | |||||
| Malignancy | 7,118 (10.6) | 3,486 (12.1) | 2,867 (11.7) | 2,884 (11.7) | <0.001 |
| Liver disease | 1,087 (1.6) | 786 (2.7) | 571 (2.3) | 568 (2.3) | 0.001 |
| HIV | 231 (0.3) | 112 (0.4) | 92 (0.4) | 94 (0.4) | 0.001 |
| Congestive heart failure | 5,419 (8.0) | 4,154 (14.4) | 2,939 (12.0) | 2,960 (12.0) | 0.001 |
| Cardiovascular disease | 17,525 (26.0) | 9,726 (33.8) | 7,729 (31.5) | 7,798 (31.6) | 0.003 |
| Stroke | 1,877 (2.8) | 1,017 (3.5) | 822 (3.4) | 819 (3.3) | 0.002 |
| Transient ischemic attack | 704 (1.0) | 406 (1.4) | 318 (1.3) | 328 (1.3) | 0.003 |
| Serious mental illness | 16,446 (24.4) | 5,755 (20.0) | 4,988 (20.3) | 5,063 (20.5) | 0.005 |
| Smoking | 8,654 (12.8) | 3,515 (12.2) | 3,032 (12.4) | 3,054 (12.4) | 0.001 |
| Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease | 10,161 (15.1) | 5,203 (18.1) | 4,146.7 (16.9) | 4,181.6 (17.0) | 0.002 |
| History of respiratory failure | 1,884 (2.8) | 927 (3.2) | 763.6 (3.1) | 762.0 (3.1) | 0.001 |
| History of sepsis | 893 (1.3) | 482 (1.7) | 370 (1.5) | 378 (1.5) | 0.002 |
| History of pneumonia | 2,111 (3.1) | 1,389 (4.8) | 1,027 (4.2) | 1,045 (4.2) | 0.003 |
| Arrhythmia | 9,383 (13.9) | 5,408 (18.8) | 4,244 (17.3) | 4,272 (17.3) | 0.001 |
| Cardiac valve disease | 1,869 (2.8) | 1,181 (4.1) | 888 (3.6) | 895 (3.6) | 0.001 |
| Parkinson disease | 495 (0.7) | 309 (1.1) | 227 (0.9) | 230 (0.9) | 0.001 |
| Urinary tract infection | 2,197 (3.3) | 1,346 (4.7) | 1,011 (4.1) | 1,021 (4.1) | 0.001 |
| Osteomyelitis | 299 (0.4) | 192 (0.7) | 151 (0.6) | 149 (0.6) | 0.002 |
| Osteoporosis | 468 (0.7) | 238 (0.8) | 195 (0.8) | 200 (0.8) | 0.002 |
| Falls | 143 (0.2) | 73 (0.3) | 55 (0.2) | 56 (0.2) | 0.001 |
| Fractures | 1,236 (1.8) | 668 (2.3) | 538 (2.2) | 538 (2.2) | 0.001 |
| Amputation | 224 (0.3) | 168 (0.6) | 115 (0.5) | 118 (0.5) | 0.002 |
| Retinopathy | 502 (0.7) | 394 (1.4) | 286 (1.2) | 287 (1.2) | <0.001 |
| Use of medications, n (%) | |||||
| ACE inhibitors | 42,993 (63.8) | 18,703 (64.9) | 15,881 (64.7) | 16,002 (64.9) | 0.004 |
| Angiotensin II receptor blockers | 8,643 (12.8) | 3,095 (10.7) | 2,800 (11.4) | 2,792 (11.3) | 0.003 |
| β-Blockers | 33,084 (49.1) | 14,674 (50.9) | 12,414 (50.6) | 12,485 (50.6) | 0.001 |
| Calcium channel blockers | 19,585 (29.1) | 8,611 (29.9) | 7,333 (29.9) | 7,367 (29.9) | <0.001 |
| Thiazide and potassium-sparing diuretics | 29,836 (44.3) | 11,508 (40.0) | 10,051 (41.0) | 10,143 (41.1) | 0.004 |
| Loop diuretics | 10,190 (15.1) | 6,544 (22.7) | 4,900 (20.0) | 4,925 (20.0) | <0.001 |
| Other antihypertensive medications | 18,349 (27.2) | 7,783 (27.0) | 6,676 (27.2) | 6,685 (27.1) | 0.002 |
| Statin lipid-lowering drugs | 49,632 (73.7) | 18,566 (64.5) | 16,456 (67.1) | 16,605 (67.3) | 0.006 |
| Nonstatin lipid-lowering agents | 13,087 (19.4) | 4,639 (16.1) | 4,222 (17.2) | 4,250 (17.2) | 0.001 |
| Antiarrhythmics digoxin and inotropes | 4,346 (6.4) | 3,114 (10.8) | 2,239 (9.1) | 2,249 (9.1) | <0.001 |
| Anticoagulants, platelet inhibitors | 5,961 (8.8) | 3,068 (10.7) | 2,465 (10.0) | 2,471 (10.0) | 0.001 |
| Nitrates | 7,752 (11.5) | 4,671 (16.2) | 3,595 (14.6) | 3,631 (14.7) | 0.002 |
| Aspirin | 14,232 (21.1) | 6,476 (22.5) | 5,305 (21.6) | 5,351 (21.7) | 0.002 |
| Platelet inhibitors not aspirin | 6,201 (9.2) | 3,067 (10.6) | 2,551 (10.4) | 2,569 (10.4) | 0.001 |
| Antipsychotics | 5,344 (7.9) | 1,960 (6.8) | 1,714 (7.0) | 1,735 (7.0) | 0.002 |
| Oral glucocorticoids | 4,988 (7.4) | 2,106 (7.3) | 1,771 (7.2) | 1,787 (7.2) | 0.001 |
| Indicators of health care utilization, n (%) | |||||
| Hospitalized within year (VHA) | 8,809 (13.1) | 4,394 (15.3) | 3,475 (14.2) | 3,528 (14.3) | 0.004 |
| Hospitalized within year (Medicare/Medicaid) | 5,563 (8.3) | 3,560 (12.4) | 2,745 (11.2) | 2,762 (11.2) | <0.001 |
| Hospitalized in 30 days (VHA) | 2,385 (3.5) | 1,144 (4.0) | 900 (3.7) | 919 (3.7) | 0.003 |
| Hospitalized in 30 days (Medicare/Medicaid) | 965 (1.4) | 569 (2.0) | 433 (1.8) | 443 (1.8) | 0.003 |
| Nursing home encounter in last year | 187 (0.3) | 131 (0.5) | 89 (0.4) | 95 (0.4) | 0.003 |
| Number medications* | 7 (5, 11) | 7 (4, 10) | 7 (4, 10) | 7 (4, 10) | 0.003 |
| Outpatient visits in past year* | 6 (3, 11) | 7 (4, 12) | 6 (4, 11) | 6 (4, 11) | 0.001 |
| Medicare insurance use in last year | 21,311 (31.6) | 10,486 (36.4) | 8,768 (35.7) | 8,772 (35.6) | 0.003 |
| Medicaid insurance use in last year | 659 (1.0) | 428 (1.5) | 319 (1.3) | 327 (1.3) | 0.002 |
| Medicare Advantage use | 10,208 (15.1) | 4,319 (15.0) | 3,755 (15.3) | 3,768 (15.3) | 0.001 |
MACR, microalbumin-to-creatinine ratio.
Median (IQR).
SMDs are the absolute difference in means or percent divided by an evenly weighted pooled SD or the difference between groups in number of SDs. In the weighted cohort, all standardized differences were not statistically significant (see Supplementary Fig. 3 for the plot of the mean standardized differences of the prematched and matched cohorts).
Definitions of comorbidities in Supplementary Table 1.