Table 4—

Factors independently associated with overall functional disability

Disease category
No diabetes and no major depression (reference) 1.00 1.00–1.00
Major depression 3.00 2.62–3.42
Diabetes 2.42 2.10–2.79
Diabetes and major depression 7.15 4.53–11.28
Age
<65 years (reference) 1.00 1.00–1.00
≥65 years 2.83 2.61–3.08
Sex
Men (reference) 1.00 1.00–1.00
Women 1.45 1.35–1.56
Race/ethnicity
Non-Hispanic white (reference) 1.00 1.00–1.00
Hispanic 0.52 0.46–0.60
Non-Hispanic black 0.82 0.74–0.92
Non-Hispanic other 0.65 0.55–0.78
Education
≥High school (reference) 1.00 1.00–1.00
<High school 1.54 1.39–1.70
Household income
≥$20,000 (reference) 1.00 1.00–1.00 <$20,000 1.54 1.41–1.67
Census region
West (reference) 1.00 1.00–1.00
South 1.36 1.21–1.53
Midwest 1.03 0.92–1.15
Northeast 1.31 1.15–1.49
Disability-associated comorbidity*
No (reference) 1.00 1.00–1.00
Yes 4.94 4.60–5.31
Disease category
No diabetes and no major depression (reference) 1.00 1.00–1.00
Major depression 3.00 2.62–3.42
Diabetes 2.42 2.10–2.79
Diabetes and major depression 7.15 4.53–11.28
Age
<65 years (reference) 1.00 1.00–1.00
≥65 years 2.83 2.61–3.08
Sex
Men (reference) 1.00 1.00–1.00
Women 1.45 1.35–1.56
Race/ethnicity
Non-Hispanic white (reference) 1.00 1.00–1.00
Hispanic 0.52 0.46–0.60
Non-Hispanic black 0.82 0.74–0.92
Non-Hispanic other 0.65 0.55–0.78
Education
≥High school (reference) 1.00 1.00–1.00
<High school 1.54 1.39–1.70
Household income
≥$20,000 (reference) 1.00 1.00–1.00 <$20,000 1.54 1.41–1.67
Census region
West (reference) 1.00 1.00–1.00
South 1.36 1.21–1.53
Midwest 1.03 0.92–1.15
Northeast 1.31 1.15–1.49
Disability-associated comorbidity*
No (reference) 1.00 1.00–1.00
Yes 4.94 4.60–5.31
*

Disability-associated comorbidity is defined as having any one of the following: chronic arthritis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, coronary artery disease, stroke, or heart failure. Chronic arthritis is defined as having rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, gouty arthritis, or other types of arthritis.

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